English Basis

名词所有格

有生命名词的所有格

1. 一般加 ‘s
   my brother’s bag
   the boy’s mother

2. 以 -s 和 -es 结尾的复数名词，右上角加 ‘
   the workers’ club
   the birds’ song

3. 复合名词后加 ‘s
   her son-in-law’s photo

4. 两人共有一样，只在后一名词加 ‘s ; 如果不共有，两个名词都加
   Jane and Mary’s father
   Jane’s and Tom’s father

无生命名词的所有格

1. 一般 of + n.
   the gate of school
   the window of the room

2. 时间/距离/国家/城市/团体/机构，加 ‘s
   today’s newspaper
   ten minutes’ walk
   China’s industry
   the station’s waiting room

3. 注意下列无生命的短语中的所有格
   to get one’s money’s worth
   get sb. out of harm’s way
   at death’s door
   at swords’ points
   by a hair’s breadth
   within a stone’s throw

冠词

冠词位置

1. 常在 n. 或 adj. 前
   Articles can be a problem area in English for students even at advanced level.
   Now we come to the most important thing.

2. 下列短语中不定冠词应后置

   • quite/rather/such/what/half + a(n)

     quite a good book
     rather a pity
     what a day
     half an hour = a half hour

   • so/as/too/how/howerver + adj. + a(n) + n.

     She is as clever a girl as you can wish to meet.
     It’s too difficult a book for us.
     Now I can see how serious a problem it is.

3. 下列短语中定冠词应后置
   all/both/half/twice/double/three times + the

   all the information
   both the twins
   half the story

数词

基数词

1. 21-99 的二位数
   在十位和个位之间加 -
   fifty-three
   eighty-nine

2. 101-999 的三位数
   数字 + hundred + and + 二位数或末尾数
   three hundred and twenty-five
   six hundred and three

3. hundred/thousand/million/billion
   several hundred
   five thousand
   ten million

   数目不确定时加 s
   tens of
   hundreds of
   thousands of

4. 在几十年代，in + the + 逢十的数词复数
   in the 1990s
   = in the 1990’s
   = in the nineteen nineties

5. 在几十几岁，in + one’s + 逢十的数词复数
   in his thirties
   in his sixties

6. 与基数词合成的定语，名词用单数
   a three-month-old baby
   the twelfth five-year plan

序数词

1. 基数词后加 th，前面一般加定冠词 the
   the sixth
   the eighteenth
   the two hundredth

2. 以 y 结尾的基数词，y 变 i，后加 eth
   the twentieth
   the fiftieth

3. 不规则的序数词
   first
   second
   third
   fifth
   eighth
   ninth
   twelfth

4. 两位或以上的把最后一个数词变为序数词
   twenty-first
   thirty-second
   one hundred and sixtieth
   eight hundred and seventy-fifth

5. 编号

• 不加冠词 事物名词 + 基数词
  Part One
  Lesson Three
  Act Two
  Gate Three

• 定冠词 the + 序数词 + 事物名词
  the First Part
  the Third Lesson
  the Second Act
  the Third Gate

6. 日期

• 某月某日
  March 15(th) 读作 March (the) fifteenth = March fifteen
  15(th) March 读作 the fifteenth of March

• 某年某月某日
  March 15(th), 2011 读作 March the fifteenth, two thousand and eleven
  15(th) March, 2011 读作 the fifteenth of March, two thousand and eleven
  美式 3/15/2011 = 3,15,2011
  英式 15/3/2011 = 15,3,2011

其他数词

1. 分数 = 分子(基数词) / 分母(序数词)，分子大于1时，分母的序数词要复数
   1/3 -> one/a third
   2/3 -> two thirds
   1(2/3) -> one and two thirds

2. 小数，小数点后按个位基数词依次读出
   0.6 -> zero point six
   5.38 -> five point three eight

代词

人称代词

人称代词的格

主格	宾格
I	me
you	you
he	him
she	her
it	it
we	us
you	you
they	them

主格可以做

• 主语：I like English.
• 主语补足语：Was it he who phoned?
• 同位语：Lu Xun, he was a great writer.
• 呼唤语：Hey, you, look out!
• 分词的逻辑主语：She being ill, I have to stay home.

宾格可以做

• 宾语：Give me the book, please.
• 介词宾语：I want to talk the matter over with her.
• 宾语补足语：I don’t believe the murderer to be him.

人称代词格的处理

1. 作表语时

• 正式文体中，人称代词在表语位置要用主格
  Is it Mary? Yes, it is she.
  It’s she, the one whom nobody likes.
  I think it is I who should ask your forgiveness.
  Is this Joe? It is I.

• 后接 that 或 who 从句时可用主格，也可用宾格
  It was he that answered the question.
  Nature never deceives us; it is always us who deceive ourselves.

• 但在日常口语中，大家往往用宾格
  Open the door please. It’s me.
  If I were him, I would take your advice.

2. 作补语时
   与 to be 前的名词或代词同格，即当 A 是 B 时，A 和 B 同格
   I was taken to be she.
   He took me to be her.

3. 在 but 后代词的格
   but 既可看作连词，也可看作介词，因此后面可接主格，也可接宾格
   Nobody can solve the problem but she/her.

   一般是紧接着主语用主格，在宾语后用宾格
   Nobody but she can solve the problem.
   Everyone lost faith in the plan but me.

4. 在 than 与 as 后可用主格，也可用宾格
   You are younger than I/me.

   为防止歧义，主句中动词为及物动词，than 与 as 后的代词作主语用主格，作宾语后用宾格
   He likes Mary better than I (like mary).
   He likes Mary better than (he likes) me.

物主代词

形容词型	名词型
my	mine
your	yours
his	his
her	hers
its	its
our	ours
their	theirs

形容词型物主代词作

• 定语：He is my teacher.

名词型物主代词作

• 主语：That isn’t my car. Mine is at home.
• 宾语：I’ve finished my homework. Have you finished yours?
• 介词宾语：He is an old friend of mine.
• 表语：Whose book is this? It’s mine.

反身代词

单数	复数
myself	ourselves
yourself	yourselves
himself	themselves
herself	themselves
itself	themselves

动词时态

·	一般时	进行时	完成时	完成进行时
现在	do(es)	is/am/are doing	have/has done	have/has been doing
过去	done	was/were doing	had done	had been doing
将来	will/shall do	will/shall be doing	will/shall have done	will/shall have been doing
过去将来	would/should do	would/should be doing	would/should have done	would/should have been doing

一般现在时

1. 经常性、习惯性事件和行为
   常用时间状语 often, usually, every day, never

2. 现在的状态、特征或普遍真理和事实
   The earth moves around the sun.

3. 书报标题、球赛现场报道、小说等情况介绍
   John shoots, but the ball hits the post.

4. 格言
   Pride goes before a fall.

5. 代替将来时

   • 由 when, after, as soon as, once, until 等引导的时间状语从句 和 由 if 等条件状语从句
     When I graduate, I’ll go to the countryside.
     If you come this afternoon, we’ll have a meeting.

   • 固定短语 + (that) + 从句
     Make sure
     Be sure
     See (to it)
     Make certain
     Take care
     Be sure you finish it today.

   • 表示按计划、时间表要发生的动作
     主语是事物，且句中常带有时间状语，一般现在时
     主语是人，多用现在进行时
     往返位移的动词：arrive, come, drive, fly, go, leave, move, return, ride, sail
     开始结束的动词：begin, close, end, open, start, stop
     The train leaves at nine in the morning.

6. 代替过去时
   仅限于 say, tell, hear, learn 等少数用于转述别人不久前对自己说过的话，尤其是所说的情况现在仍然存在
   He says he can’t wait any longer.
   My friends tell me that you’ve been unwell.

7. 代替完成时
   It is (has been) + 一段时间 + since 从句
   It is ten years since I moved to Shanghai.

一般过去时

1. 过去某时间发生的且已完成的动作
   He saw Mr. Wang yesterday.

2. 过去存在或持续了一段时间的某种状态
   Roman Empire existed for centuries.

3. 过去经常发生的动作或多次反复的行为
   He rode a horse to school everyday when he was a child.

   过去经常发生的动作

   • used to 和 would + 动词原形
   • used to 过去常发生，但现在不再如此
   • would + 动词原形 过去常发生，现在也会发生
   • used to 可描写过去的状态；would 不能

   I used to play chess when I was at shool.
   During the vacation I would swim in the sea.
   There didn’t use to be any crime around here in the old day.

4. 过去的事情，主句用过去时，为了时态一致，从句也用过去时，即使情况仍然存在
   He said he was English.

5. 描述已去世人的情况
   Edison was a great inventor.

6. 虚拟语气中，用过去时表示现在
   It’s time, I wish, I’d rather

   It’s time you had a holiday.
   I wish you lived closer to us.
   I’d rather you did it now.

7. 过去的经验
   过去时 + ever / never / once
   Did you ever see a lion?
   She never heard such a beautiful song before.

   如果要表示 过去一直到现在为止的经验，用现在完成时

8. 代替过去完成时，说话人不强调先后，不强调因果关系
   He said he was sorry for what he said.
   Did you find the pen you lost?
   When the clock struck ten, we all went to bed.

一般将来时

1. will, won’t 预测的将来，根据分析判断，认为某事肯定会发生，或某人肯定会做某事
   The weather will be good tomorrow.
   Why not come over at weekend? The children will enjoy seeing you.

   will 预测某事即将发生时，要加副词修饰
   Look at the sky. It will probably rain later.

   • 即将发生，时间很短，很快就来了，要加副词修饰
   • 较长的未来，时间长，不加副词，表示肯定

2. will, won’t 意愿和决心的将来，指个人的意愿或强调所下的决心
   I will come with you at the weekend, whatever my parents say!
   After what has just happened, I won’t believe a word you say again.

3. will, won’t 必然趋势或结果的将来，与安排或意愿无关
   常搭配 if，表示一件事发生，另一件事就必然发生
   I’ll be sixteen years old next month.
   If we go on like that, we’ll lose all our money.

4. 其他将来时结构

   • be going to + 动词原形

     • 根据目前状况判断某事即将发生
       Look at those black clouds. It is going to rain.

     • 根据目前的意愿将要某事
       We are going to have a meeting today.

     • when 或 if 引导的状语从句，随着一件事发生，另一件事就将发生，主句不能用 be going to
       When he comes, I shall/will give him your message.
       If you come out for a walk, you will feel much better.

   • be to + 动词原形

     • 按计划、安排即将要做的事
       I am to have tea with Jack this afternoon.

     • 正式安排，常见于报纸广播，用于宣布官方计划或决定
       The Prime Minister is to speak on television tonight.

     • 意志 / 命令 / 可能性
       You are bring my luggage upstairs.

     • 表示愿望的 if 从句，只有主句的行为发生后，if 从句的愿望才能实现
       If a man is to succeed, he must work very hard.

   • be about to + 动词原形
     眼下就要发生的事，不接将来时间状语。常用 be about to…when 正要…突然
     Come on! The check-in desk is about to close.
     I was about to leave when you phoned me.

   • be due to + 动词原形
     定于(某时做某事)，常搭配时间状语
     The repairs are due to start on 26th May.

   • be on the point of, be likely to, be sure to

现在进行时

1. 正在进行的动作或某些体感动词的持续状态
   They are playing tennis now.
   My foot is hurting and my back is aching.

2. 少数瞬间动词用进行时表示不断重复的动作
   He is jumping with joy.
   Someone is knocking at the door.

3. 少数动词用进行时表示一个临时行为，即虽然说话时没有真正在做，但现阶段正在从事且还没有结束的行为
   She’s staying in my house this time.
   I don’t really work here; I am just helping out until the new secretary arrives.

   这类动词：live, work, study, stay, help

4. 在一个特定时间段内反复进行的事情
   I’m feeding the neighbour’s cat this week while she’s in hospital.
   Jack’s having a tough time at the office at the moment and he’s smoking about fifty cigarettes a day!

5. 计划或安排即将发生的事，即最近或较近的将来，给人一种期待感，常伴有表示将来的时间状语
   We are leaving here tomorrow.
   They are getting married next month.

   常用于表示开始、终结、往来行动的动词：arrive, begin, close, come, drive, end, fall, finish, fly, go, land, leave, open, move, return, start, stop, take off, travel

6. 搭配 always, constantly, continually, forever 表达某种感情色彩，如不耐烦、不满意、赞美、惊奇
   She is always complaining.
   He is forever finding fault with me.

7. 离现在较近的过去
   Do you hear what she is saying?
   You know I’m telling the truth.

8. 解释和归纳前面的话
   When I say somebody is lazy, I’m not referring to you.
   If you climb mountains in such bad weather, you are asking for trouble.

9. 表示 关切、礼貌、强调、赞美 等
   Are you feeling better today?
   I’m hoping you will come.
   I’m telling you the truth.
   You are doing fine work at school.

10. 下列介词短语表示进行中
    under discussion
    under way
    under construction
    under repair
    under medical treatment

过去进行时

1. 过去某一时刻、某一阶段正在进行
   In 1980 he was studying in a university.

2. 行为的短暂性 或强调它的不断变化和发展
   During my training I was earning a lot less than my wife.
   His symptoms were becoming more pronounced each day.

3. 常和一般过去时一起使用，用于描述一个动作进行过程中另一个动作发生
   Darkness was falling over the city when I came back home.
   Seventy cars were crossing the river when the bridge collapsed.

4. 强调在过去一个临时的时间段里反复进行的事
   For the first three months she was receiving chemotherapy on weekly basis.

5. 搭配 always, constantly, continually, forever 等表达某种感情色彩
   My brother was always losing his keys.

将来进行时

1. 将来某个特定时间要进行的动作
   What will you be doing this time tomorrow?
   When I get home, you will probably be watching television.
   I hope he will be feeling better when you come tomorrow.

2. 早先已安排将来要做的 或 预定会发生的事
   He will be staying with us again next year.
   I will be seeing her over Christmas vacation.

   常用于委婉地询问别人的计划 或 拒绝邀请
   Will you be coming at six tomorrow?
   Will you be staying long?
   If you will be wanting anything, just let me know.
   I’m sorry, I can’t come to your wedding as I’ll be working on that day.

3. 把将来的事件看作是惯例或常规，此将来事件往往会持续一些时间
   Winston will be performing with his steel band every night of the music festival.
   We’ll be having our weekly meeting tomorrow so I’ll present your proposal then.

   将来进行时重在表达作为惯例或常规，此事肯定会发生
   I’ll be seeing Mr. Kennedy at the court tomorrow - he’s always there on Thursdays - so we can discuss your case briefly then.

   现在进行时重在表达此事是个新的安排而非惯例或常规
   We’re having our weekly meeting tomorrow instead of Friday this week.

   一般现在时重在表达此事是按时间表要发生的事
   We have our weekly meeting tomorrow so I’ll present your proposal then.

4. will be + -ing 表示现在，will 用作情态动词，有揣测的意思，常搭配 now
   They’ll be watching television now.
   Hurry up. They will be waiting.

现在完成时

1. 动作在说话前已完成，但对现在有影响。句子无具体时间状语
   He has gone to Fuzhou.
   I have lost my wallet.

   常用的不明确时间状语：already, yet, just, recently, lately, still, ever, so far, seldom, never

2. 动作开始于过去，持续到现在，也许还会持续下去
   He has studied English for 5 years.
   I have been here since 1993.
   Up to now, everything has been successful.

   常用连词：for, since
   常用包括现在时间在内的状语：so far, now, in the past few years, today, this week, up to now, for as long as I can remember

3. 用在时间和条件状语从句，表示将来某时完成的动作
   I’ll go to your home when I have finished my homework.
   If it has stopped snowing in the afternoon, we’ll go to the park.

4. 用于下列序数词及 the only 构成的句型
   It/This is the first/last/only + 名词 + (that) + 现在完成时
   It is the first time that I’ve seen such a wonderful building.
   It is the only book that he has ever written.

5. 用于形容词最高级构成的句型
   It/This is + the best/worst/most interesting + 名词 + (that) + 现在完成时
   This is the best film that I’ve ever seen.
   This is the most interesting book that I’ve ever read.

过去完成时

1. 描述过去某一时刻或某一动作前完成的动作或状语
   He asked me whether I had seen the film the night before.
   By the end of last year we had built five new houses.
   At the time of the trial last summber Hinckley had been in prison for eight months.

2. 常搭配 before, after, when, until 等引导的时间状语从句，使被描述事件发生的先后表达得更清楚
   The train had left before I reached the station.
   He felt a lot better after he had taken the medicine.
   When we got back, the babysitter had gone home.
   Until yesterday I had ever heard about it.

3. before + 过去完成时 表示 不等…就，句中的过去时动作先发生，或阻止其后面的动作发生
   主句(过去时，动作先发生) + before + 从句(过去完成时)
   She sacked him before he’d had a chance to explain.

4. 常用过去完成时的结构

• By/Towards/Before the end of + 过去时间 + 句子(过去完成时)
• At the time of + 过去事件 + 句子(过去完成时)
• By + 过去时间 + 句子(过去完成时)
• By the time + 句子(过去时) + 句子(过去完成时)
• Hardly/Scarcely/Barely + 过去完成时(倒装) + when + 句子(过去时)
• No sonner + 过去完成时(倒装) + than + 句子(过去时)
• 主句(过去完成时) + for as long as I could remember

5. 过去没有实现的愿望
   We had hoped that you would be able to visit us, but you did not.
   She had thought about paying us a visit, but was prevented from doing so.

常用词：expect, hope, intend, mean, suppose, thinking about, want, wish

6. 在虚拟结构中用过去完成时表示过去

将来完成时 / 将来完成进行时

1. 将来完成时 表示将来某时刻前某行为已经完成，或预计将已完成

• 简单句常用 by, by then, before, within the next week 等表示将来时间的介词短语引导
• 复合句常用 before, when

By the end of next week, they’ll have reached the destination.
By the time he arrives, we’ll aleady have left California.
By then we’ll have eaten all the food we brought.
I’ll have finished reading the book before the next lesson.
Perhaps we’ll have finished our work before she arrives.
When we get there, they’ll probably have left.

2. 将来完成进行时 强调动作的延续性，表示该事情到将来某个时候已经持续了一段时间
   I’ll have been teaching for thirty years in July.
   By the end of next month, I’ll have been living here for 18 years.

过去将来时

1. 从过去的某时间看将要发生的动作或存在的状态，would + 动词原形
   They were sure that they would succeed.

2. 常用于宾语从句
   He said he would call for me at six.
   She asked me what I would do the next morning.

3. was/were going to do 过去的预见或意图，也常表示计划没有实现
   The sky was then overcast with black clouds. There was going to be a storm.

4. was/were to do, was/were about to, was/were due to 按计划、安排将在过去将要发生的事情
   As I was to leave the next day, I went to bed early.

5. was/were to + have done 原计划、原打算 或 本应当做的事没有做或没有发生
   I was to have seen him last Wednesday, but he didn’t come.

现在完成进行时

1. 一个从过去某一时刻开始的动作，一直延续到说话时还在进行或刚结束
   常用 for, since, how long 等引导的时间状语
   Her telephone has been ringing for a long time.

2. 表示一个重复性的动作，常表示 关切、惊异、愤怒 等感情色彩
   You have been coughing a lot lately.

3. 搭配 lately, recently 表示动作或行为的临时性
   Helen’s been spending a lot of time at the club lately.
   People have been eating less meat recently because of the price.

被动语态

·	一般时	进行时	完成时
现在	is/are done	is/are being done	have/has been done
过去	was/were done	was/were being done	had been done
将来	will be done	·	will have been done
过去将来	would be done	·	would have been done

虚拟语气

用于条件状语从句

·	条件状态从句	主句
与现在事实相反	If + 主语 + 动词过去式	主语 + would/should/could/might + 动词原形
·	(be 动词一律 were)	·
与过去事实相反	If + 主语 + 动词过去完成式	主语 + would/should/could/might + have + 过去分词
与将来事实相反	谓语用动词过去式	主语 + would/should/could/might + 动词原形
·	谓语用 were to + 动词原形	·
·	谓语用 should + 动词原形	祈使句

与将来事实相反中

• should + 动词原形 表示实现的可能性很小
• were to + 动词原形 表示绝对不可能

用于宾语从句

下列动词后接宾语从句，用 (should) + 动词原形

• 建议：suggest, propose, recommend, advise, move, motion
• 主张：insist, maintain, hold, urge
• 要求：ask, request, require, demand, desire, prefer, arrange
• 命令：order, command

We suggested that we (should) have a meeting.
The doctor ordered that she (should) stay in bed for a few days.

用于表语从句、同位语从句

下列动词后接表语从句 同位语从句，用 (should) + 动词原形

• 建议：suggestion, proposal, recommendation, advice, motion, idea, resolution, wish
• 要求：aim, request, requirement, demand, desire, necessity
• 命令：order

My idea is that he (should) do exercises first.
Our decision is that the school remain closed.

用于主语从句

在主语从句中(常用 it 作形式主语)，谓语动词的虚拟语气结构用 (should) + 动词原形 或 should + have + 过去分词，表示惊奇、不相信、惋惜、理应如此

1. It is/was + 某些形容词 + that + 句子(虚拟语气)
   形容词 necessary, important, natural, desirable, advisable, strange, urgent, preferable

   It is not necessary that everyone be a scientist.
   It is strange that he should have gone away withour telling us.

2. It is/was + 名词 + that + 句子(虚拟语气)
   名词 a pity, my desire, a shame, no wonder

   It is a pity that you should be so careless.
   It is his desire that a medical team should stay here.

3. It is/was + 过去分词 + that + 句子(虚拟语气)
   过去分词 desired, suggested, decided, proposed, requested, ordered, recommender, required

   It has been decided that the meeting be put off till tomorrow.
   It is required that you give us a talk on international affairs.

用于定语从句

定语从句和主句的时态可参照虚拟条件从句和主句的搭配

Anybody who should do that would be laughed at.
= If anybody should do that, he would be laughed at.

A man who stopped working would amount to nothing.
= If a man stopped working, he would amount to nothing.

Any person who had behaved that way would have been dismissed.
= If any person had behaved that way, he would have been dismissed.

wish / if only + 句子

用法	谓语动词形式
现在未实现的愿望	过去式(be 动词用 were)
过去未实现的愿望	过去完成式 或 could have + 过去分词
将来不可能实现的愿望	could/might/would + 动词原形(不用 should)

译为 可惜…、…就好了、悔不该…、但愿…，引导的从句时态不受主句影响

1. 现在未实现的愿望
   I wish I knew his phone number.
   I wish it were spring all the year round.
   If only I were a bird!

   有时也可用 could, might
   I wish I could help you.
   I wish I might be with you.

2. 过去未实现的愿望
   I wish/wished I had taken your advice.
   If only I had taken his advice.

3. 将来不可能实现的愿望
   could/might + 动词原形 表示可能性
   would + 动词原形 表示愿望或礼貌请求

   I wish I could dance but I’m afraid I’ve got two left feet.
   If only we could see the situation through his eyes.

主句 + as if/though + 从句

• 与现在事实相反，过去式(be 动词用 were)
• 与过去事实相反，过去完成式

When a pencil is partly in a glass of water, it looks as if it were broken.
He talks to me as though I were a child.

would rather + 从句

• 从句用过去时，表示现在或将来
• 从句用过去完成时，表示过去

I would rather you paid me now.
I would rather you painted the wall green next time.
I would rather she hadn’t done that.

suppose (that) 等引导的表示假设的句子

suppose/supposing (that), even if/though, what if, imagine (that) + 句子

• 句子用过去时，表示现在或将来
• 句子用过去完成时，表示过去

Suppose he asked you to marry him, what would you say?
Even if he were wrong, you should not treat him like that.
What if you came tomorrow instead of today?
Imagine that we were on a lonely island now.

If it were not for 与 But for

译为 如果没有；要不是因为

1. 虚拟现在
   If it were not for / But for + 名词 + 主句(过去将来时)

   If it were not for the rain, the crops should (would) die.
   But for the rain, we should have a pleasant journey.

2. 虚拟过去
   If it had not been for / But for + 名词 + 主句(过去将来完成时)

   If it had not been for your timely help, I would have failed.
   But for your help, I would not have finished the work.

3. 错综时间

   • If it were not for + 虚拟过去
   • If it had not been for + 虚拟现在

   If it were not for his short sight, he would have been a pilot.
   If it had not been for the doctor’s care, I should not be speaking to you now.

某些连词引导的条件、目的和让步状语从句

1. 条件状语从句
   on condition (that) 条件是，so long as 只要

   I lent it to him on condition that he should return it.
   So long as it be fine, I will start.

2. 目的状语从句
   in order that 为了，for fear (that) 唯恐，in case (that) 以防

   I have come all the way from Vienna in order that you should thoroughly understand me.
   He’s working hard for fear that he should fall behind.
   He doesn’t dare (to) leave the house in case he should be recognized.

3. 让步状语从句
   whether 无论，though 虽然，whatever 不管什么

   And I support such testing, whether it be in public schools or in a homeschooling situation.
   Though he be the President himself, he shall hear us.
   Whatever be the reason for his action, we cannot tolerate such disloyalty.

祝愿及某些固定表达

1. 祝愿(常用动词原形)
   God bless you!
   Heaven forbid!
   May you succeed!
   Long live our motherland!

2. 固定表达

   • So be it 那就这样吧，顺其自然
   • Be that as it may 尽管如此
   • If need be 如有必要

   If he doesn’t want to see us, then so be it.
   Be that as it may, I won’t lose heart.
   If need be, I can come early tomorrow.

   • Be + 主语 + ever so 形容词，译为 无论怎样…
   • Be + 主语 + 表语 A or 表语 B，译为 无论是 A 或 B

动词的非谓语形式

不定式

·	主动态	被动态
一般时	to do	to be done
进行时	to be doing
完成时	to have done	to have been done
完成进行时	to have been doing

否定形式 not to do

1. 作主语
   it 往往作形式主语
   To see is to believe.
   It is right to give up smoking.

2. 作表语
   The important thing is to save lives.
   My job is to help patients.

3. 作宾语
   He wanted to go.
   She deserved to win because she was the best.

4. 作宾语补足语
   He asked me to do the work with him.
   The news of his failure caused the students to give up hope.

5. 作定语
   She’s finally made a decision to leave.
   The farmers thought of ways to protect their crops.

6. 作状语
   目的、结果、条件、原因

7. 作独立成分
   to be frank
   to be exact
   to be sure
   to begin with
   to tell the truth
   to say the least
   to say nothing of
   to make a long story short
   needless to say

8. 搭配疑问词 who, which, when, where, how, what，作名词
   How to solve the problem is very important.
   My question is when to start.

动名词

·	主动态	被动态
一般时	doing	being done
完成时	having done	having been done

p222

分词

介词

介词/前置词，是一种虚词，不能单独做句子成分，必须与名词或代词构成介词短语，才能在句中充当一个成分。

介词分类

1. 简单介词 at, in, on, besides, since, for
2. 合成介词 inside, out of, onto, without
3. 短语介词 because of, next to, instead of, due to
4. 二重介词 from behind, until after
5. 分词介词
   concerning / regarding / respecting,
   considering, following, given, including,
   owing to, saving

介词短语在句中的作用

1. 定语
   A friend in need is a friend indeed.
   The houses opposite ours are being pulled down.

2. 状语
   With production up by 60%, the company has had another excellent year.
   In the absence of mathematics, science would not exist.

3. 表语
   Japan is to the east of China.
   He is always among the first to come to school.

4. 宾语补足语
   Make yourself at home.
   We found her in better spirits.

5. 介词宾语
   He came out from behind the door.
   We have been living here since before liberation.

介词后直接接形容词

at best 至多
at present 目前
for good 永远
in brief 简而言之

省略介词直接接名词

of + age/color/height/length/size/shape/volume 作表语时，可省略 of
They were (of) the same age.
He was (of) medium height.
The sky is (of) the color of jade.

常用介词

用法	常用介词
时间	at, in, on, by, for, through
在附近	near, by, beside, at
地点	at, in, on
除…外	besides, except, except for, but, but for
方位	in, to, on
经由，通过，穿过	across, by, through
在…上/下	above, below, over, under, on, beneath
方式	by, through, with
原因	through, with, from, for, at, owing to, due to, because of, on account of, thanks to
价格，比率，对比	at, by, for, against
属性，特性	of, with
比较	as, like, in spite of, despite

时间

at

1. 时间的一点、时刻
   They come home at sunrise (at noon, at midnight, at ten o’clock, at daybreak, at dawn).

2. 较短暂的一段时间，某个节日 或大事的日子
   He went home at Christmas (at New Year, at the Spring Festival, at night, at midsummer).
   At the beginning (middle, end) of that month he was sick.
   His grandfather died at seventy-two.

in

1. 在某个较长的时间(如世纪、朝代、年、月、季节，以及泛指的上午、下午和傍晚)
   He was born in 1942.
   He did it in the holidays.

2. 在一段时间后

• 用于将来时间时，谓语动词为 一时性的动作，in 译作 在…以后
  He will arrive in two hours.

• 谓语动词为 延续性的动作，in 译作 在…以内
  These products will be produced in a month.

• after 用于将来时间时也指 一段时间后，但其后的时间是 一点，而不是一段
  after two o’clock

on

1. 具体的时日或特定的时间，如某日、某节日、星期几等
   On May 4th (On Sunday, On New Year’s day, On Christmas Day), there will be a celebration.
   He will come to meet us on our arrival.

2. 某个特定的早晨、下午、晚上
   He died on the eve of victory.
   He arrived at 10 o’clock on the night of the 5th.

3. 准时，按时
   If the train should be on time, I should reach home before dark.

by

1. 不迟于，在…前
   He must have returned by now.
   Jack had made some friends by the time you came.

2. 在…间，在…的时候
   He worked by day and slept by night.
   I don’t like travelling by night.

for

1. (年、月、日、时等)…之久
   He was absent from school for a week.
   I have been here for three days.

2. 指定的时刻
   The operation was fixed for Friday.
   The ceremony was arranged for two o’clock/March 1st.

through
从…开始到结束，同 throughout
He guarded us all through the night.
We work hard all through the year.
It rained throughout the night.

在附近

near
相对的近，实际距离可能还很远
Suzhou is near Shanghai.
There is a post office near our school.

by, beside
靠近，实际距离不会很远，但 beside 比 by 更具体地表示出 在…旁边
He was sitting beside her.
There is a big tree by the river.

at
在旁边，多表示有目的的行为所处的位置，而 by, beside 仅表示位置关系
The students are sitting at the desks listening to the teacher.
Several students are sitting by/beside the windows talking about a film.

地点

at

1. 较小的地方
   I shall wait for you at the station.
   The car is waiting at the traffic lights.

   at the bus stop
   at the door
   at the traffic lights
   at the desk
   at the top/bottom of
   at the end of

2. 门牌号码前
   He lives at 115 Fuzhou Road.

in

1. 较大的地方或在里面
   He lives in Shanghai/in the city centre.
   He is in a shop/in the kitchen/in the garden.

2. 小的地方

   • 如果说话人住在那，可用 in
   • 商店、机关、学校，看作一个地点(point)用 at；看作一个场所(place)用 in

   I met him at the post-office.
   I’m now working in the post-office.

on
一般与面与线接触

1. 在…上
   The picture was hanging on the wall.
   He put the book on the table and sat on the chair.

2. 在…旁边
   He lives in a house on the river.
   Xiamen is on the sea.
   New York is on the Hudson River.

   He sails on the river every day.

3. 在…里
   He lives on Fifth Avenue.
   He has few friends on the campus.

方位

in
在某范围内
Guangdong lies in the south of China.

to
在某范围外
Fujian lies to the south of Jiangsu Province.

on
毗邻、接壤
Mongolia lies on the north of China.

经由、通过、穿过

across
穿过、跨过，表示横过一个平面或横过一条直线，或指静止的对面的位置
A bird flew across the sky.
Kate went across the street to make some purchases.
A smile of peasure passed across the his face.

by
经由、取道、通过，表示移动的方向
He rose quickly and went out by another door.
She crossed the stream by a little bridge.
I shall return possibly by Nanjing.

through
从…通过、穿过，表示通过三维的空间
The sunlight was coming in through the window.
He got us in through the back door.

在…上/下

above
在…上、高于…(相对高度，不一定在正上方)，反义词 below
A bird is flying above the woods.
The dead sea is below the sea level.

还可以指位置、职位、程度、价值、品德、年龄高于或低于所提及的人或物

over
在…上(垂直之上 或附于某物之上并将之遮住)、从…上越过，反义词 under
There is a lamp over our heads.
Spread a cloth over the table.
The dog jumped over the table.

on
在…上(与表面接触)
He put a map on the desk.
They sat on the grass.

beneath
几乎紧贴在某物之下
The earth felt soft beneath our feet.
He wore a woolen vest beneath his shirt.

方式

by
方式、方法、手段

1. 一般的方法或方式
   We often met by appointment.
   The bicycle is made by machine, not by hand.

   by weight 按重量计的方式
   by volume 按体积计的方式
   by auction 以拍卖的方式
   by contract 以承包的方式

2. 传达、传递的方式或媒介
   How did you send the letter, by airmail or by e-mail?

   by express 以快递
   by letter
   by post
   by raido

3. 用交通工具、通讯工具。后接名词单数，不加冠词
   He came by train but his wife came by bus.

through
媒介、方法，译作 以、通过、经由
I obtained my position through a friend.
He succeeded through hard work.

原因

through
因为，常搭配 neglect, carelessness, mistake, fault，表示偶然或消极的原因，如疏忽、过错、不慎
He cut himself through carelessness.
The experiment failed through no fault of ours.

with
因为、由于，外界影响到内部
He is down with high fever.
The little girl was shivering with cold.

from
动机、疲劳、痛苦、死亡等原因
She did it from a sense of duty.
He often dozed off from tiredness.

for
为了某一目的、事因
Forgive me for keeping you waiting.
The boys all jumped for joy at the news.

at
原因，当听到、看到、想到
She looked surprised at seeing us.
At this news they felt very glad.

due to
常作表语，也可状语
Our delay is due to traffic jam.
That Shelly became a poet may have been due to his mother’s influence.
Later, he was released due to poor health.

owing to
常作状语，不用作表语
Owing to his lack of experience, John failed to do the work well.
Now his crops completely failed, owing to a disease that had set in.

because of, on account of
常作状语，不用作表语
Because of her bad leg, Jane couldn’t walk as fast as the others.
At first Philip hesitated on account of the expense.

但若主语不是一个名词而是事实，可作表语
We stayed at home; that was because of the snow.
His health is failing; that is on account of the lack of healthy forms of exercise.

thanks to
只作状语，不用作表语
Thanks to your kind help, we finished early.
Thanks to your generous donation, we can rebuild our laboratory.

价格、比率、对比

at
比率、单位、价格
You bought this bike at a high price.
The population is growing at a surprising rate.
The train runs at about 120 miles an hour.
She will get it at any cost.
Normally, we walk at a/the speed of four miles per hour.

by
度量单位或标准、以…计

1. 按照，相当于 according to
   It is nine o’clock by my watch.
   I set my watch by the standard clock of the custom house.

2. 以…计、成(百/千)地、某种行事方式

• by + the + 计量单位(单数)，以…计
  Meat is sold by the pound.
  They are paid by the hour.
  He buys them by the hundred.

• by + 复数数词(不加冠词)，成(百/千)地
  The words in a book are counted by thousands.
  They sat down in ranks, by hundreds, and by fifties.

• by + 单数数词(不加冠词)，某种行事方式
  Here eggs are sold by weight.
  These goods are for the most part made by hand.

3. 尺寸、距离、增减程度
   The hole high up in the wall is about 18cm by 9cm. (18厘米长，9厘米宽)
   Industrial production rose by nearly two-fifths in the past three years.

for
交换或交换值
They rented it to us for fifteen dollars a month.
He agreed to give her 500 dollars for the picture.

against
对比
We have six girl students in our class this year against ten last year.
Against the U.S. dollar its value increased by more than 15 percent.

属性、特性

of + 抽象名词
形容词特性

1. 后置定语
   A man of wisdom = a wise man
   fifty years of age = fifty years old

2. 作表语
   This matter is of great importance. (= very important)
   Your information is of great value to us. (= valuable)

此类抽象名词有 age, color, help, height, length, no use, shape, size, thickness, width
日常用时，of 常被省略
I want another pair of shoes (of) the same size.

of a + 名词
不同物质的共同性质，of 前的名词与 of 后的名词是同位关系

1. 用在短语
   an angel of a wife = The wife is an angel.
   a fool of a man = The man is a fool.
   a poem of a night = The night is a poem.

2. 用在句子
   Birds of a feather flock together. 物以类聚，人以群分
   These machines are of a kind. 这些机器都是同种类型的

with
表示属性、特性时，后面接的通常不是抽象名词，而是具体名词，用于说明人或事物的形状
a coat with four pockets.
a magazine with a pretty girl on the cover.

比较

as + 名词
描述某人的工作，身份，所扮演的角色或某物所起的作用(比较对象 本身就是)
Simon’s working as a waiter during the summer vacation.
Use your payroll number as a password for the computer.

like + 名词
比较两个看上去相似的东西(比较对象 貌似而其实不是)
They were behaving like children!
When Mike puts on his dark suit he looks like a waiter.

Despite, In spite of, Despite the fact that

简单句

陈述句

1. 肯定句
   I’m looking forward to hearing from you soon.

2. 否定句

   • 谓语动词是 be, have, 助动词或情态动词，后加 not
     He is not a student.

   • 谓语动词是行为动词，又没有助动词或情态动词，前加 don’t
     I don’t want to do that.

   • 否定词 no, hardly, never
     He has no brothers or sisters.

   • 两者的全部否定 neither 或 neither…nor…
     Neither of them knows French.
     Neither John nor Mary is here.

   • 两者的部分否定 both + not
     Both of them didn’t attend the meeting.

   • 三者以上全部否定 none, nothing, nobody, no one
     None of these answers is/are right.
     Nobody agrees with what you said.

   • 三者以上的部分否定 总体意义词 + not (all, many, every)
     Not many people like music.
     Not every girl likes singing and dancing.
     All these books are not mine.
     All that glitters is not gold.

   • 按语义本应放在 that 从句中的否定词 not 被移到主句的谓语动词中，通常用在 相信、臆测一类词(believe, expect, imagine, suppose, think)
     I don’t think it is very cold today.
     We don’t believe that he can do it.

疑问句

1. 一般疑问句

   • 谓语是 be, have，将它们放在主语前
     Have you any English books?
     = Do you have any English books?

   • 谓语是行为动词，将助动词 do 或情态放在句前
     Do you have a meeting every week?

   • 否定疑问句用肯定还是否定，应根据实际情况
     Isn’t she a doctor? Yes, she is.
     Can’t you do it? No, I can’t.
     Didn’t you meet him? Yes, I did.
     Haven’t you finished the homework? No, I haven’t.

2. 特殊疑问句

   • 特殊疑问词作主语或主语的定语，与陈述句语序相同
     Who is in the room?
     Whose father works in Beijing?

   • 特殊疑问词作宾语、状语、表语或修饰这三种成分的时候，疑问词 + 一般疑问句
     Where do you come from?
     When will you go?

   • Why + 一般疑问句否定式，表示劝告、建议、责备等
     Why don’t you come earlier?

   • 含有插入语的特殊疑问句
     特殊疑问词 + do you think, do you suppose, do you say + 陈述句语序
     When do you think he will come?
     Which train did you say you had taken?
     What do you suppose has happened?

反义疑问句

p286

复合句

名词性从句

主语从句及形式主语

1. 主语从句在作主语，放在主句谓语动词前
   引导词有

   • 连词 that, whether
   • 代词 who, what, which
   • 副词 when, where, how, why

   That she was able to come made us very happy.
   Whether she will come or not is still a question.
   What we need is more time.
   Who will go makes no difference.
   Which team will win the match is still unknown.
   When they will start is not known yet.
   Where she has gone is a mystery.
   How this happened is not clear.
   Why he did that wasn’t quite clear.

2. 形式主语
   为避免头重脚轻，由 it 作形式主语，把主语从句放到句末

   • It + be + 形容词 + that 从句
     It is strange that he knows nothing about it.

   • It + be + 名词 + that 从句
     It is a pity that they have failed in the match.

   • It + 动词 + 宾语 + that 从句
     It depends on its quality and price whether a new product sells well.

   • It + 动词的被动结构 + that 从句
     It is still unknown which team will win the match.

   常见被动结构
   It turned out that…
   It has been proved that…
   It is well-known that…
   It must be pointed out that…

表语从句

1. 表语从句位于系动词后
   引导词有

   • 连词 that (有时可省略), whether, as if
   • 代词 who, what, which
   • 副词 when, where, how, why

   The fact is (that) she never liked him.
   It could be this part of the ice sheet is not necessarily sensitive to global warming.
   The question is who can complete the difficult task.

2. because 引导的表语从句只有一个句型
   This/That/It is because (that)…

   I think it’s because you are doing too much.
   It may be because I am no mathematician.

3. reason 作主语，表语从句不可用 why 或 because 引导，只能 that
   The reason why…is that + 表语从句

   One reason why Hamlet is such a successful play is that it appeals to many different people.

4. 表语从句不能用 if 引导，但可以用 as if
   He looked as if he was going to cry.

同位语从句

两个成分处于相同地位，起修饰作用的叫同位语
同位语是后置修饰语，对与之同位的名词(本位词)提供补充说明，起修饰和描绘作用

Wang Lin, a diligent student, refused all help that was offered him.
Playing football, his only interest in life, has brought him many friends.

有时也可以置于本位语前
Formerly a worker himself, he is now an engineer.
Normally a timid boy, Tom jumped into the river and saved the drowning girl.

1. 若用句子作同位语，叫同位语从句
   下列名词常接同位语从句
   belief, conclusion, decision, discovery, evidence, report, explanation, fact, hope, idea, information, news, opinion, possibility, principle, problem, promise, truth, wish

   引导同位语从句的关联词用 that 时不能被替换
   His delay is due to the fact that the car went wrong halfway.
   The news that our team has won the match is true.

2. 引导词有

   • 代词 what
   • 副词 when, where, how, why, whether
   • 疑问词前有时可加 of 或 as to

   You have no idea how worried I was.
   He has no idea what a remarkable woman Mary is.
   She had no idea (as to) why she thought of him suddenly.
   I have a small doubt (as to) whether he is suitable for the job.
   My original question, why he did it at all, has not been answered.

3. 主句谓语较短，同位语从句常被分隔
   主语(本位语) + 谓语 + 同位语从句
   An idea occurred to him that he might do the experiment in another way.
   The rumour spread that a new school would be built here.

4. 本位语是 advice, proposal, request, suggestion 等祈使对方怎么做的动作名词，同位语从句谓语要虚拟语气
   The suggestion came from the chairperson that the rule (should) be adopted.

同位语从句和定语从句的区别

1. 从意义看

   • 同位语从句是名词性从句，对名词加以补充说明
   • 定语从句是形容词从句，对名词加以修饰和限定

   It is a fact that she has done her best.
   It is a fact that you can’t deny.

2. 从结构看

   • 同位语从句常由 that 引导，虽然不充当成分，但也不可省略
   • 定语从句由关系代词引导，代替先行词，在从句中充当主语或宾语成分，充当宾语时常可省略

   The news that our team has won the game is really encouraging.
   The news (that) he told me is really encouraging.

宾语从句及形式宾语

宾语从句在句中作及物动词或介词的宾语

引导词有

• 连词 that, whether, if
• 代词 who, whose, what, which
• 副词 when, where, how, why

1. 引导宾语从句的连词 that 通常不能省略

   • 搭配 agree, aruge, assure, hold, indicate, maintain, inform, object, suggest 时，that 常不省略

   I assure you that you’re mistaken.
   He objected that it was impossible.

   • 主句谓语动词后接两个并列的宾语从句，连接第二个宾语从句的 that 不可省略

   He said he couldn’t tell you right away and that you wouldn’t understand.
   I know you aren’t a doctor and that you want your son to become a doctor.

2. 作介词的宾语
   A modern city has been set up in what was a wasteland ten years ago.
   The shopkeeper did not want to sell for what he thought was not enough.
   Mary wrote an article on why the team has failed to win the game.

   介词后通常不跟由 that 引导的从句，但可以跟 the fact that 从句
   He was held responsible for the fact that his dog had bitten his neighbor.

3. 形式宾语
   谓语动词 consider, find, make, regard, see, take, think 等后接 宾语从句 + 宾语补足语时，用 it 作形式宾语，把宾语从句置于宾语补足语后，此时 that 不省略
   主语 + 谓语 + it + 宾语补足语 + that + 宾语从句

   We find it necessary that we practise speaking English every day.
   He always takes it for granted that he can pass the exam without hard work.

直接引语转换成间接引语

1. 直接引语是陈述句，改为 that 引导宾语从句
   He said, “I’m very glad.”
   He said that he was very glad.

2. 直接引语是一般疑问句，改为 if, whether 引导宾语从句
   He said, “Can you come this afternoon, John?”
   He asked whether John could go that afternoon.

3. 直接引语是特殊疑问句，改为 who, what, when 等疑问词引导宾语从句
   He said, “Where is Mr. Wang?”
   He asked where Mr. Wang was.

4. 直接引语是祈使句，改为 主语 + ask/tell/order sb. (not) to do sth.
   He said, “Open the door please, John!”
   He asked John to open the door.
   He said, “Don’t talk in class!”
   He ordered us not to talk in class.

whether 与 if 的用法

1. 只能用 whether 不能用 if 表示 是否 的情况

   • 表语从句
     The question is whether the film is worth seeing.

   • 同位语从句
     Answer my question whether you are coming.

   • 主语从句
     Whether we shall attend the meeting hasn’t been decided yet.

   用 it 作形式主语，则 whether 和 if 都能引导主语从句
   It hasn’t been decided whether/if we shall attend the meeting.

   • 在介词之后(介词可省略)
     It all depends (on) whether they will support us.

   • 名词 + as to + whether
     There is some question as to whether the public should be told about the accident.

   • 后接动词不定式
     He doesn’t know whether to stay or not.

   • 后接 or not
     We didn’t know whether or not she was ready.

   • 避免 if 引起的歧义
     Please let me know whether you like it.

定语从句

在复合句中修饰名词或代词的从句叫定语从句。

引导词有

• 代词 who, whom, whose, which, that
• 副词 where, when, why
• 准关系代词 as, but, than
• 引导名词性从句或状语从句复合关系代词 what, whatever, whoever, whichever

·	主语	宾语	定语
人	who/that	(whom)/(that)	whose
物	which/that	(which)/(that)	whose

1. who, whom, whose 引导的定语从句
   This is the man who helped me.
   Is Sheba the dog who was run over and nearly killed last year?
   Do you know the man whose name is Wang Yu?
   Do you see the house whose windows are all broken?

2. which 引导的定语从句
   The building which stands near the river is our school.

3. of which/whom 引导的非限制性定语从句

• 名词、不定代词或数量词 + of which/whom:
  none, neither, any, either, most, many, much, (a) few, both, half, each, one, two + of whom(人) / of which(物)

He’s written a book, the name of which I’ve forgotten.
The book contains 40 poems, most of which were written when he was at college.
We interviewed fourteen applicants for the post, none of whom we thought suitable.
The committee consists of 20 members, five of whom are women.

• of which/whom 在从句中作主语时，有两种结构
  Do you see the house, the windows of which are all broken?
  = …, of which the windows …?

The eighty passengers, ten of whom were British, all escaped without serious injury.
= …, of whom ten were British, …

• 名词 + of which 作主语，常可用 whose + 名词取代
• of which 前的名词应带定冠词

4. in which case 引导的定语从句

非限制性定语从句中，用抽象名词 case, point, reason, situation, time 等总结主句的内容时，以 介词 + which + 抽象名词 构成从句，对所提的事进行补充说明。

The plane may be several hours late, in which case there’s no point in our waiting.
Ten years of hard work changed her greatly, for which reason he could hardly recognize her at first sight.

5. the way 后接定语从句
   That’s the way he spoke.
   That’s the way that he did it.
   That’s the way in which you answered the question.

× That is the way how he spoke.
√ That is how he spoke.

the way 后不能用 how 引导定语从句，因为 how 不能作关系副词

6. that 引导的定语从句

关系代词 that 在定语从句中可以指人或物，在从句中作主语或宾语
This is the boy that broke the window.
The letter that I received was from my father.

必须由 that 引导的情况

• 先行词是不定代词 all, few, little, much, something, nothing, anything
  All that we have to do is to practise every day.
  Much that you have read is nonsense.

• 先行词被 all, any, every, each, few, little, no, some 修饰
  I have read all the books (that) you gave me.
  Any paper that you read will give the same story.

• 先行词被序数词或形容词最高级修饰
  The first lesson that I learned will be forgotten.
  This is the most interesting book that I have ever read.

• 先行词被 the only, the very, the same, the last 修饰
  He is the only person that I want to talk to.
  This is the very book that I want to buy.

• 先行词既有人也有物
  They talked of things and persons that they remembered.
  The train ran over to a boy and his dog that were just corssing the track.

• 以 who, which 引起的问句，为避免重复，常用 that
  Who is the man that is talking to John?
  Which was the hotel that was recommended to you?

• 作关系副词，修饰表示时间的名词 day, time, moment 等，代替 when
  It happened on the day that/when I was born.

7. 关系代词作表语或宾语补语的情况

• who, whom 不能作表语

• which 作表语，可指人或物
  指人时，一般指从事某种职业或有某种特性，品质或才能的人
  引导的定语从句既可以是限制性，也可以非限制性
  He is no longer the man which I thought him to be.
  Anna is a vegetarian, which no one else is in our family.
  This is not the type of modern house which my own is.

• that 作表语，可指人或物
  引导的定语从句只能是非限制性
  He is not the liar that he appeared to be.
  He is not the man (that) he was when I saw him first.

• 复合关系代词 what 作表语，可指人或物
  Things are not what they seem.
  She isn’t what she used to be.

8. 关系代词的省略

9. 关系副词 when, where, why 引导的定语从句
   兼有连词作用
   常用于表示时间、地点、原因等名词后

• when
  At the time when I saw him, he was quite strong.

• where
  You have reached the point where a change is needed.

• why
  Can you tell me the reason why you are so unhappy?

• 特殊用法

  1. 省略先行词
     this/that/it is 后可省略 the time, the place, the reason 直接跟 when, where, why

  That was (the time) when he lived there.
  It is (the place) where I was born.
  That’s (the reason) why he spoke.

  2. 可被 that 或 介词 + which 取代的情况
     the day/time/moment when
     = the day/time/moment that
     = the day/time/moment on which

  the place where
  = the place that
  = the place in which

  the reason why
  = the reason that
  = the reason for which

10. 介词 + where/when 引导的定语从句

from where 引导定语从句，where 代表主句提供的地点
After supper he usually stood near the window, from where he could see the tower.

since/by when 引导定语从句，when 代表主句提供的事件背景
I bought this dictionary two years ago, since when I have used no others.

11. 准关系代词 as

引导状语从句的连词 as 可用作关系代词，引导定语从句，因而被称为准关系代词。
but, than 也能作准关系代词

• as 引导限制性定语从句

  • such …as
    Such people as were mentioned by him were honest.(as 作主语)
    We have such grape as you never saw.(as 作宾语)
    I’ve never seen such a clever man as he is.(as 作表语)

  • the same…as
    Modern statesmen are often faced with the same problem as defeated the ancient Romans.(as 作主语)
    I like the same book as you do.(as 作宾语)

  • as…as
    As many children as came were given some cakes.所有来的小孩都得到了蛋糕(as 作主语)
    He is as diligent a man as ever lived.(as 作主语)
    He was telling the kids as funny a story as he did last time.(as 作宾语)

• as 引导非限制性定语从句

  • 只代表主句或主句的一部分所表达的意思(不能指代名词或代词)，可以放在主句前、中、后，在从句中作主语或宾语

  As is known to all, he is the best student in our class.(as 指代整个句子，作主语，置于句首)
  He opposed the idea, as could be expected.(as 指代整个句子，作主语，置于句末)
  As we all know, he studies very hard.(as 指代整个句子，作宾语，置于句首)
  Taiwan is, as you know, an inseparable part of China.(as 指代整个句子，作宾语，置于句中)

  as is said above
  as is known to all
  as is often the case
  as is reported in the newspaper

  • 主句具有否定意义，as 引导的定语从句位于主句后，as 指代的主句不包括否定意义，并可用 but 取代

  Insects do not have bones, as people have.
  = …, but people have bones.
  as 指代的主句为 Insects do have bones

  Whales are not fish, as some people think.
  = …, but some people think they are.
  as 指代的主句为 Whales are fish

  但 as 引导的定语从句在主句前时，as 指代的主句仍包含否定意义
  As has been said above, grammar is not a set of dead rules.

  • which 和 as 引导的非限制性定语从句

    • which 引导的从句不能放在主句前，而 as 引导的从句既可在主句前，也可以放在主句后

    √ As is often the case, he is absent.
    × Which is …

    He saw the girl, as/which he had hoped.

    • 作关系代词，as 和 which 都可以指代一个句子，但 as 有 正如、就像 的意思，which 没

    He is a foreigner, as I know from his accent.(as 指代一个句子，正如、就像)
    He has to work on Sundays, which he doesn’t like.(which 指代一个句子，没正如、就像的意思)

    • 当从句的谓语动词是 be 或相当于连系动词的 seem, become 等时，可用 as 或 which 作主语；当从句的谓语动词是行为动词时，只能用 which 作主语

    He married he, as/which was/seemed natural.
    He saw the girl, which delighted him.

    • as 作连词，引导状语从句，构成省略形式 as + 过去分词，翻译时如定语
      The bridge as shown in the picture is really wonderful.
      (as shown = as it is shown)
      See the answers as given at the end of this book.
      (as given = as they are given)

12. 准关系代词 but

• but 作关系代词时的3个特征

  • 本身含有否定意义，相当于 who/which/that … not
  • but 的先行词往往是否定意义的代词或名词词组，通过双重否定达到强烈肯定的修饰效果
  • but 在从句中作主语，谓语动词的数要与先行词一致，时态与主句相呼应

  There is no rule but has exceptions.
  = There is no rule that has not exceptions.

  There is no one but knows about this affair.
  = There is no one who doesn’t know about this affair.

  There are few dictionaries but have a misprint or two.
  = There are few dictionaries that don’t have a misprint or two.

• but 引导状语从句时 but = that not
  I never go past my old school but I think of my headmaster.
  = I never go past my old school that I don’t think of my headmaster.

13. 准关系代词 than

• 作关系代词，引导定语从句
  从句谓语动词的数和时态须与前面被比较级修饰的先行词保持一致
  Don’t give him more money than is necessary; Money burns a hole in his pocket.
  He smoked fewer cigarettes than were normally available.

• 作连词，引导状语从句
  He did more than was required of him.
  The really serious cases are fewer than has been suggested.

• 作连词，引导状语从句，构成省略形式 than + 过去分词 (than 后省略了形式主语 it 和动词 be)
  Our trip to Shanghai was more fun than expected.
  A snowstorm is moving across the Northeast and it’s worse than predicted.

  常见结构
  than allowed
  than expected
  than imagined
  than measured
  than planned
  than predicted

14. 复合关系代词 what

• 复合关系代词概念
  定语从句中 what 是个由名词(先行词)和关系代词组成的复合词，也就是兼做先行词的关系代词，称作复合关系代词
  what 可指人或物，指人时 what = the person that，指物时 what = the thing(s) which

  Thank you for the gift. This is exactly what I wanted.
  I like Jack. He never pretends to be what he isn’t.

  what 已包含先行词的含义，所以注意以下句子
  × This is the book what I want.
  √ This is the book that I want. / This is what I want.

• what 在从句中的作用

  • what 的名词作用，作主语、宾语、表语
    What surprised me most was his way of speaking.(what 作主语)
    We can learn what we did not know.(what 作宾语)
    Is the city different from what it was ten years ago?(what 作表语)

  • what 的形容词作用，修饰名词，译作 仅有的，全部的
    Don’t worry. I will give you what help I can.
    = Don’t worry. I will give you any help that (as much help as) I can.
    I gave him what money I had with me.

  what 在作定语时，常与 few, little 连用修饰名词，译作 尽管不多，但已是全部
  I will lend you what few reference books I can spare.
  = I will lend you all the few reference books that I can spare.

  We contributed what little money we had towards the earthquake-stricken area.
  = We contributed all the little money that we had towards the earthquake-stricken area.

  What little he said on the subject was full of wisdom.

• what 引导的名词性从句在句中的作用

  • 从句作主语
    What I want is a quiet room away from the noise of traffic.
    What is over is over.

  • 从句作表语
    Things are not what they seem.
    I should like to be a teacher. That’s what I want to be.

  • 从句作宾语
    Why don’t you tell the police what you told me yesterday?
    Never put off till tomorrow what can be done today.

  • 从句作介词的宾语
    Don’t poke your nose into what doesn’t concern you.
    He gave me a practical illustration of what was to be done.

  • 从句作宾语补足语
    What has made China what she is today?
    You can call me what you like.

• what 用于比喻的结构
  A is to B what C is to D
  A 对于 B 犹如 C 对于 D 一样

  Parks are to the city what lungs are to the body.
  Virtue is to the soul what health is to the body.

• what 组成的常用短语
  and what not 其他、等等
  Guess what! 告诉你个消息！
  What of it? 那又怎样
  What if …?
  know what’s what 内行、有判断力

15. 复合关系代词 whoever, whichever, whatever

引导名词性从句	引导让步状语从句
whoever = anybody who	whoever = no matter who
whichever = any that	whichever = no matter which
whatever = anything that	whatever = no matter what

• whoever, whichever, whatever 作名词，引导名词性从句，指未知的或不确定的人或物，在从句中作主语或宾语

  Whoever comes first will get the prize.
  You can give the prize to whomever you meet first.
  Here are two books. You may choose whichever you like.
  We will do whatever is needed to improve our English.

• whatever, whichever 兼作形容词，修饰从句中的名词，并引导名词性从句，whatever 译作 仅有的，全部的

  Whatever water was left was used for the children.
  She applied whatever strength she had left to the task.
  You should wear whichever dress suits you best.

• whoever, whichever, whatever 作副词，引导让步状语从句

  Whoever you are, you must obey the law.
  Whichever you choose, the others will be offended.
  Whatever you may think, I’m going ahead with my plans.

16. 限制性定语从句 / 非限制性定语从句

• 限制性定语从句是对主句先行词加以限制或分类，是句中不可缺少的部分，主句和从句间不能用逗号分开

  Is this the book that you were looking for?
  Would all those who have booked dinner please go to the restaurant now?

• 非限制性定语从句是对主句先行词的补充说明，没有它不影响主句意思的完整，常用逗号把主句和从句分开
  As was expected, he performed the task with success.
  The sun, which had been hidden all day, now came out in its splendour.
  I have two sisters, who are both students.

• 非限制性定语从句中的关系代词 which 可指代整个主句或主句某一部分，不能用 that 取代，作宾语的关系代词不能省略
  We were given a lovely double room, which had a sea view.
  This book of yours, which I finished reading last night, was very interesting.

17. 插入语

• 分句作插入语
  He is, I hear, a great scholar.
  His only demand is to give the tickets to those who he thinks deserve.

  可作插入语的分句
  I believe, I find, I guess, I hear
  I imagine, I remember, I suppose, I think

• 状语分句作插入语
  That is, as far as I know, not what he really wants.

  可作插入语的状语分句
  as far as I know
  as I told you before
  if you like

• what 构成的惯用插入语

  • what + be + 比较级形容词 译作 而且，尤有甚者
    Tom participated and, what is more surprising, won the prize.
    He said nonthing, and, what is worse, laughed at us.

  • what we call, what is called 译作 所谓的
    Most of what we call “geniuses” are successful only because they have made great efforts.

  类似结构
  what we consider
  what is considered
  what is now
  what is thought to be
  what is referred to as
  what you refer to as
  what is known as

状语从句

状语从句在句中作状语，修饰主句中的动词、形容词、副词
状语从句在主句前，常用逗号分开；在主句后，一般不用逗号
状语从句有9种 时间、条件、原因、让步、目的、结果、方式、比较、地点

1. 时间状语从句

• when, while, as 当…的时候

  • when 强调特定时间

  When spring came, he felt like a trip.
  When he was eating his breakfast, he heard the doorbell ring.

  • while 从句用持续性动词，表示一段时间，而不是一点

  While he was eating his breakfast, he heard the doorbell ring.
  We must strike while the iron is hot.

  • as 强调同一时间里两个相继发生的情况，或两个动作一前一后，有时有 随着 的意思

  As he was eating his breakfast, he heard the doorbell ring. (强调同一时间)
  As I was going out, it began to rain. (强调先后)
  As spring warms the good earth, all flowers begin to bloom. (随着)

• before 两件事的先后关系
  主句肯定，before 引导的从句动作后发生
  主句否定，before 引导的从句动作先发生
  I started my meal before he arrived.
  He didn’t arrive before I returned.

• till 知道，since 自从，once 一旦，by the time 到…为止

  • till/until 用于肯定句时，主句用持续的动词 live, last, stand, stay, wait, work

  He worked until it was dark.
  She stood there until he had passed out of sight.

  • till/until 用于否定句时，主句用非持续的动词 begin, become, get up, reach, start

  He did not get up till his mother came in.
  No man really becomes a fool until he stops asking questions.
  Do not start until I give the word.

  • since 自从…以来
    Electricity has been widely used since it was discovered.
    It has been / It is six years since we entered the middle school.

  • once 一旦，引导的状语从句可以同时表时间和条件
    Once (it is) printed, this dictionary will be very popular.
    Once you see her, you will find what I say is true.
    Once you understand the rule, you will have no further difficulty.
    = As soon as you understand the rule, you will have no further difficulty. (时间)
    = If you once understand the rule, you will have no further difficulty. (条件)

  • by the time + 现在时，主句用将来完成时
    By the time he arrives, we will already have left California.

  • by the time + 一般过去时，主句用过去完成时
    By the time he arrived, we had already left California.

• as soon as, instantly, immediately, directly, presently
  从句动作一发生，主句动作随即发生，译作 一…就…
  as soon as 最普通
  instantly 最强
  presently 最弱
  As soon as I finish the work, I’ll go to see you.
  Immediately (when) the button was pressed, the mine exploded.
  Directly I had done it, I knew I had made a mistake.

• no sooner…than, hardly…when 译作 刚…就…
  主句动词用过去完成时，从句用过去时
  如果 no sooner, hardly 在句首，主句须倒装
  hardly…when 可换 scarcely…before

  The sun had no sooner started to shine than it was clouded over again.
  I had hardly sat down when he stepped in.
  Hardly had I entered the room when I heard a loud noise.
  No sooner had she sat down than the phone rang.
  The day had scarcely broken before he got up to work.

• time 词组引导，某一特定时刻发生或存在的情况
  the first time, the last time, next time, every time, each time, any time

  I thought her nice and honest the first time I met her.
  Every time I went to his house, he was out.

  the first time = when…for the first time
  I thought her nice and honest when I met her for the first time.

• 下列名词词组转化成时间连词引导从句，表示两个动作紧接着发生，译作 一…就…
  the moment, the second, the minute, the instant, the day
  the month, the week, the year, the morning, the afternoon

  She came to the scene the moment she heard the news.
  I recognized her the instant I saw her.

2. 原因状语从句

• because, for 因为，as 由于，since 既然

  because 直接的原因，着重在从句，语气最强
  主句为否定句时，从句 because 要用逗号和主句隔开，不然会产生歧义
  I didn’t visit him, because I wanted to borrow some books.
  我没去拜访他，因为我想借几本书
  I didn’t visit him because I wanted to borrow some books.
  我不是因为想借几本书才去拜访他

  for 不说明直接原因，只提供补充说明，不可放在主句前，要用逗号或分号和主句分开
  I didn’t go to see him, for a heavy snow was falling.
  有时表示推断或解释
  Someone in the house must be ill, for a doctor has just come out.

  as 十分明显的原因，常在主句前，着重在主句，原因只是附带说明
  As it is snowing, we shall not go to the park.
  As this book is written in simple English, it is suitable for beginners.

  since 对方已知的，无须加以说明的既成事实理由
  = as it is the fact that… 着重在主句
  Since you are ill, I’ll go alone.
  Since all the cakes looked good she couldn’t decide which to choose.

• seeing that = considering that 近似 since
  Seeing that the weather is bad, we’ll stay at home.

• now that 近似 since
  since 原先已存在的情况；now that 由于新情况出现而促成某事发生
  Now that it has stopped rainning, let’s start at once.

• in that 因为，多指某一方面的原因
  I like the city, but I like the country better in that I have more friends in the country.

• not…because
  She didn’t marry you because you had money.
  她不是因为你有钱才嫁给你

• not that…but that 不是因为…而是因为
  Not that I don’t like the film, but that I have no time for it.

3. 地点状语从句

引导词 where, wherever, anywhere, everywhere

Put it where you can see it.
I’ll find him, wherever he is.
You can’t camp anywhere/where/wherver you like.

We shall go where working conditions are difficult. (状语从句)
We shall go to the place where working conditions are difficult. (定语从句)

4. 条件状语从句

• if 正面条件
  If your dog is depressed, he probably needs more exercise.

• unless 否定条件
  = if…not / except if
  There will be a picnic unless it rains.

• only if 使某事成为现实的必要条件
  = on (the) condition that
  = as/so long as
  = provided/providing (that)

  You may go swimming on condition that you don’t swim too far away from the river bank.
  We’ll visit Europe next year, provided we have enough money.

• 假设条件
  suppose/supposing (that), what if, in case

  Suppose (that) I don’t have a day off, what shall we do?
  What if the money doesn’t arrive on time?

• given that + 句子，given + 短语，译作 倘若，考虑到
  Given that she is interested in children, I am sure teaching is the right career for her.
  Given his age, he is really a fast learner.

• 祈使句/名词词组(,) + and/then/or + 简单句(常用将来时)
  Give me somewhere to stand, and I will move the earth.
  = If you give me somewhere to stand, I will move the earth.

• can’t…and…
  You can’t study hard and fail in the exam.
  = If you study hard, you can’t fail in the exam.

5. 让步状语从句

• although = even though, though 虽然
  Although I didn’t know anybody at the party, I had a very good time.

• though / as 引导的倒装句
  Patient though/as he was, he was unwilling to wait three hours.
  Hard as/though he tried, she failed to pass the exam.

• while 而、虽然、尽管
  Tom is very outgoing while Ken is shy and quiet.

  译作 虽然、尽管 时多放在句首，从句和主句主语多为同一人或物
  While I admit that the problems are difficult, I don’t agree that they cannot be solved.

• if 尽管、即使，granted/granting (that) 即使、就算
  If a jewel falls into the mud, it remains as precious as before.
  Granted that he’s not brilliant, he at least works hard.
  Granting (that) you are right, you should not treat her that way.

• even if 即便
  不把从句当成既成事实，指某种可能的情况不会阻止另一种情况的发生，所以从句要用现在时来表示将来
  I’m going to apply for the job, even if it pays very little.
  They’ll stay by you even if you don’t succeed.

• whether…(or not) 无论是…或是…
  Whether it rains or not, I shall go out for an outing tomorrow.
  Whether we win or lose, we are going to do our best.

  whether 译作 无论 时，用现在时表示将来
  whether 译作 是否 时，则不能用现在时表示将来

• 疑问词 + ever 构成的复合词
  = no matter + wh-
  Whoever (No matter who) you are, you must obey the law.
  Come and see me whenever (no matter when) you want to.

6. 目的状语从句

• in order that 为了，so that 以便
  He works hard in order that he can serve his country well.
  They started early so that they might arrive in time.

• for fear that 生怕，in case 以防，lest 以防

  for fear that 生怕某种不好的事会发生，常用虚拟语气
  若可能发生，也可不用虚拟
  He’s working hard for fear (that) he should fail.
  Shut the window for fear (that) it may rain.

  in case 以防
  = for fear that
  = because…might
  He will come to the office in case he is wanted.
  I shall stay in the hotel all day in case there is news of Harry.

  lest 以免，以防，为了不
  否定目的，常用 (should) + 动词原形
  The animals must be destroyed lest the disease spread.
  She came into the room quietly lest she (should) wake up her baby.

for + 动名词 不用于表示目的
for + 名词 可用于表示目的
Write it in simple English to make everybody understand.
上面用 to make 而不是 for making
Better get up early for the early train.

以下介词短语 + 动名词 可用于表示目的
for the sake of
for the purpose of
with the purpose of
with a view to
with the aim of
with the intention of

7. 结果状语从句

• so that 所以，so…that 如此…以至于
  such that 是这样以致，such…that 如此…以至于

  He made a wrong decision, so that half of his property was lost.
  The box is so heavy that nobody can move it.
  His progress was such that it surprised his teacher.
  It is such a heavy box that nobody can move it.

• but, but that

  主句为否定，构成前后双重否定，but = that not 没有…不
  I never see you but I think of my brother.
  It never rains but it pours.
  He is not so old but that he can walk.

  主句为肯定，从属连词 but that 引导条件状语从句，译作 若不是
  I would go abroad but that I am short of money.
  I should have failed but that you helped me.

8. 方式状语从句

• as 就像、正如，just as 正如
  (in) the way (that) 以…的方式
  He watched her as a cat watches a rat.
  I have changed it as you suggested.
  Just as some people are born artists, so some are born sportsmen.
  She’s doing her work the way I like it done.

• as if, as though 好像、仿佛
  as if 和 as though 引导的从句常用虚拟语气
  若可能发生，也可不用虚拟

  The old man runs very fast as if he were a young man.
  He acts as though she did not exist.
  The milk smells as if it is sour.
  It looks as if it’s going to rain.

  as if 和 as though 引导的从句可用省略形式
  Some flowers shut up at night as if (they do this in order) to sleep.
  She stood at the door as if (he was) waiting for someone.

9. 比较状语从句

• than 比
  as…as 像…一样地
  not so…as 不像…一样地
  the…the 越…越

  I know you better than he does.
  We walked as far as our legs could carry us.

• as/so + 句子 与…同时，就像…一样

  As the wind blew harder, so the sea grew rougher.
  As bees love sweetness, so flies love rottenness.
  As the debate continues, so do the questions about it.

• A is to B as C is to D.
  = A is to B what C is to D.
  = As C is to D, so A is to B.

  C is to D 表述的是众所周知的内容
  A is to B 是说话人要告诉大家的事实

  Water is to fishes as air is to men.
  = Water is to fishes what air is to men.
  = As air is to men, so water is to fishes.

10. 状语从句中省略主语的情况

• 从属连词 + 名词
  Even as a girl, she showed great promise as a pianist.
  Though an ordinary worker, he has made some important inventions.

• 从属连词 + 形容词
  If necessary, ring me at once.
  When young, I looked at such things quite differently.

• 从属连词 + 副词
  Things were beginning to improve, even if not quickly enough.
  Once home, he took off his straw hat.

• 从属连词 + 介词短语
  He had an accident while on his way home.
  He looked about as if in search of something.
  Her eyes were restless as though from fear.

It

1. 实词(代词)

• 人称代词

  • 指人
    Who is it? Is it you, Andrew?
    Who is making such a noise? It must be the children.

  • 代替前文提到的人或物
    What a beautiful baby - is it a boy?
    She was a rich woman and she looked it.

  • 代替指示代词 this, that
    What’s this? It’s a flag.

  • 代替彼此都知道所指的东西
    Where does it hurt?
    How’s it going with you?

• 非人称代词
  没有具体意义的主语，如 气候、温度、时间、地点、距离

2. 虚词(助词)

• 作形式主语
  动词不定式、动名词、从句 作主语时，常把它们放到谓语后，而把 it 当形式主语，避免头重脚轻
  It is not a good habit to stay up late.
  It is no use crying over split milk.

• 作形式宾语

  • 当复合宾语中的宾语是 动词不定式、动名词、宾语从句 时，常把宾语放在它的补足语后，用 it 作形式宾语，放在宾语补足语前
    谓语动词有 believe, consider, count, feel, find, imagine, think, make, suppose, take
    主语 + 谓语 + it + 宾语补足语(形容词/名词/介词短语) + 不定式/动名词/that 从句
    You must find it exciting working here.
    I made it my business to settle the matter.
    I’ve got to make it clear that my family was very poor.

  • 礼貌的请求和建议
    主语 + would appreciate/can make + it + if 从句
    I would appreciate it if you could come to my birthday party.
    You can make it if you hurry.

  • 喜欢和不喜欢
    主语 + like/dislike/love/hate + it + when + 从句
    I hate it when people stare at me.
    We love it when grandchildren come over.

• 强调语句

  • It + is/was + 被强调部分 + that + 句子其余部分

    • 强调主语
      It is John that/who might have bought a new book yesterday.
      It is the times that produce their heroes.

    • 强调宾语
      It is English that Li teaches us.
      It was Li that/whom I met in the street yesterday.

    • 强调时间状语和地点状语
      It was in Shanghai that I saw the film.
      It was in 1975 that I worked in a factory.

    • 强调状语从句
      It was because it raised so many difficult questions that the book took a long time to come out.
      It was after we had prepared everything necessary that we began to make test.

  • It is/was not until + 陈述句/时间状语 + that + 句子
    It was not until the teacher came that I finished the homework.

  • It has been/is + 时间长度 + since
    It is a long time since I saw you last.

  • 特殊疑问句 + is/was + it + that + 句子
    Where was it that you met him?
    What is it that he wants to see?

  • It is a + 形容词 + 单数可数名词 + that + 谓语动词
    再…也…
    It is a good horse that never stumbles.
    It is an ill wind that blows nobody good.

• It is 和 There be 的区别
  当句中的主语由 that, wh-, if 引导的从句、不定式、动名词构成时，常用 It 作形式主语
  当表示某人、某事、某物存在于某地或是否存在时，用 There be

  It is no wonder + (that) 从句
  It is no surprise + that 从句
  It is no secret + that 从句
  It is no coincidence + that 从句
  It is no longer + 形容词 + to do
  It is no use/good + -ing

  There is no doubt + about/that 从句
  There is no hope/chance of…
  There is no need to do…
  There is no point in doing…
  There is no denying + that 从句

倒装

1. 完全倒装

• 地点、时间、方位的副词位于句首

  • 地点/时间 的副词 + 谓语 + 主语
    地点副词 here, there, in, on, outside, opposite 等
    时间副词 then, now, soon, next, first, finnally 等
    谓语往往是 be 或 不及物动词 begin, come, go, lie, live, lay, seem, remain, stand 等

  Here are my replies to your questions.
  There remained only ten dollars in his pocket.
  Then came the time to part.
  Next is the news.

  • 方位 与介词同性的副词 + 谓语 + 主语
    副词 in, out, up, down, away, off, ahead, back 等
    谓语往往是不及物动词 come, go, fly, jump, rush, walk 等

  In comes Mr. Smith.
  Out went the children.
  Down flew the eagle to seize the chicken.

• 地点、时间的介词短语 作状语 位于句首
  地点、时间的介词短语 + 不及物动词 + 主语
  Beyond the bushes lay the fields.
  At the top of the hill stands the old church.

• 用于 so, nor, neither 开头的句子
  肯定句 + so + 倒装句(指的是另一人或另一物)
  He has been to Beijing. So have I.

  否定句 + neither/nor + 倒装句(指的是另一人或另一物)
  Li Wei can’t answer the question. Neither can I.

  肯定句 + so + 陈述句(指的是同一人或同一物)
  He said he would call on her. So he did.
  Zhang Ping is a top student in our class. So he is.

2. 部分倒装

• 一…就…，刚…就…，指某事发生得过早
  Hardly/Barely/Scarcely + 部分倒装(过去完成时) + when + 陈述句(过去时)
  No sooner + 部分倒装(过去完成时) + than + 陈述句(过去时)

  Hardly/Barely/Scarcely had he arrived at the station when the train began to leave.
  No sooner had she gone out than the telephone rang.

• 不但…而且…
  Not only + 部分倒装 + but (also) + 陈述句
  Not only is he a first-class ball-player, but he is good at chess.
  Not only did I know her, but I was her best friend.

• 直到…才…
  Not until + 陈述句/时间状语 + 部分倒装
  Not until the teacher came did he finish his homework.
  Not until yesterday did I learn anything about it.

• Only + 时间副词/介词短语/状语从句 + 部分倒装
  Only this afternoon did finish the novel.
  Only by working hard can we succeed in everything.
  Only when he told me did I realize what trouble he was in.

• 某些否定词在句首时
  hardly, scarcely, barely, rarely, seldom, no, not, never, nowhere, little, less, no longer, least of all

  Hardly did he know that the police were after him.
  Never shall I do this again.
  Nowhere could I find him.

• 某些含 no 的介词短语在句首时
  决不、任何情况下都不
  at no time, by no means, under/in no circumstances,
  in no way, in no case, on no account, on no consideration

  At no time will China be the first to use nuclear weapons.
  In no case shall we give up our plan.
  Under no circumstances could we agree to such a principle.

• so, such 在句首时
  So/Such… + 部分倒装 + that + 陈述句
  So fast does light travel that it is difficult for us to imagine its speed.
  Such a fierce dog did he have that we had to wait before we could get in.

  so + 形容词，such 为表语时，完全倒装
  So great was the destruction that it took them several years to recover.
  Such was the force of the explosion that all the windows were broken.

• to such…表示程度的词组在句首时
  To such an extent
  To what/such a degree
  To such extremes
  To such length(s)
  In such a hurry

  To such lengths did he speak that everyone got bored.

• 省略 if 的虚拟条件状语从句

  • Were/Had/Should + 主语 = If + 主语 + were/had/should
    Should it rain tomorrow, I should stay indoors.

  • Were it not for = If it were not for
    Had it not been for = If it hadn’t been for
    Were it not for their help, we would be in serious trouble.

• 让步状语从句
  形容词/名词/分词/动词/副词 + though/as/that + 主语 + 系动词/助动词/情态动词/谓语动词
  Strange though it may seem, the tallest boy is the youngest.
  Try as he would, he might fail again.

• 原因状语从句
  形容词/名词/分词/动词/副词 + as/that + 主语 + 系动词/助动词/情态动词/谓语动词
  Tired that/as he was, he went to bed early.
  Living as I do so remote from town, I rarely have visitors.

• as, than 引导的状语从句
  主语是人称代词时不倒装
  He travelled a great deal as did most of his friends.
  I spend less than do nine out of ten people in my position.

• the..the…
  The more grain we produce, the greater will be our achievement.
  The more famous he became, the higher (were) the prices his pictures fetched.

• 不引起倒装的前置
  出于修辞原因，将宾语、主语补语或宾语前置，但主谓不引起倒装

  • 宾语的前置
    His proposal I accepted.
    What he said I cannot imagine.

  • 主语补语的前置
    A very reliable person he is.
    Terribly hot it certainly was.

  • 宾语补语的前置
    宾语是代词时不能倒装
    We broke the door open.
    = We broke open the door.

  √ We broke it open.
  × We broke open it.

• 特殊结构的让步状语，译作 无论

  • Be + 主语 + ever so 形容词
    Be a man ever so clever, he knows nothing if he doesn’t learn.

  • Be + 主语 + A or B
    Be he friend or enemy, the law regards him as a criminal.
    All magnets behave the same, be they small or large.

  • 动词 + wh-词 + 主语 + will/may
    Say what we will, he doesn’t want to change his mind.
    Come what may, we must remain cheerful.
    Go where you will, you cannot succeed without perseverance.

• 宾语从句为直接引语的句子在句首时
  主语是代词时不能倒装
  “Let’s go” said the man.
  = “Let’s go” he said.

• 某些祈使句
  May you succeed!
  May he live to regret this decision!